Discussion on Autonomous Learning Management in English Learning Center on View of Stakeholder Theory//SHEN Meijuan,
ZHU Guoxing
Abstract Stakeholders in English autonomous learning system are
administrators, teachers, experimental technical personnel and stu-dents. They are closely related to the autonomous learning. From the perspective of Stakeholder theory, the article analyses the current
situation in English autonomous learning system, proposes the me-thods to reinforce the autonomous learning management.
Key words English autonomous learning; stakeholder theory; auto-nomous learning management
認(rèn)知心理學(xué)要求兒童要“在環(huán)境的各個(gè)方面搜尋和利用信息的有效策略”,體現(xiàn)在小學(xué)英語教學(xué)的策略上,就是要求教師要在課堂上提出問題引導(dǎo)學(xué)生,通過觀察、實(shí)踐、調(diào)查或其他的方法,搜尋和利用有效的信息,思考問題,找出問題的答案。也就是我們提倡的探究式策略。例如:在教授“What is the name of this place in English?”這篇課文時(shí),老師可以設(shè)計(jì)如下步驟:1.運(yùn)用新句型提問舊知識。如水果類或動物類“What is the name of this animal/fruit in English?”2.運(yùn)用新句子“What is the name of this place in English?”學(xué)習(xí)課文中新的地名和景點(diǎn)。3.利用圖片或文字引導(dǎo)學(xué)生用英語說出他們所熟悉的地名和景點(diǎn)。4.作業(yè):讓學(xué)生統(tǒng)計(jì)他們所了解的世界各地的地名和景點(diǎn)。引導(dǎo)學(xué)生在報(bào)刊、字典、電視或互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上查找資料。要求學(xué)生不僅了解地名和景點(diǎn),而且能用一兩句話描述它們的特征。5.交流信息。學(xué)生在課堂上交流介紹他們搜集到的地名和景點(diǎn)。在此過程中,學(xué)生出示有關(guān)地名和景點(diǎn)的圖片資料,用他們所學(xué)的英語知識加以描述。其他同學(xué)可以向介紹者提出問題,介紹者也可以要求其他同學(xué)竟猜地名或景點(diǎn)。
學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的主要目的,是把它作為第二語言,使用英語可以與更多的人交流與溝通;也因?yàn)橛⒄Z是世界上使用最廣泛的語言,需要利用它了解多姿多彩的世界。因此,在教學(xué)活動設(shè)計(jì)中,都必須考慮怎樣讓學(xué)生使用英語,解決實(shí)際生活中的問題。例如,在學(xué)習(xí)“Go to the Zoo”這篇課文時(shí),老師可以設(shè)計(jì)如下步驟:1.按照課文內(nèi)容制作課件,把去動物園的交通工具、路線和沿途的地點(diǎn)展示出來,同時(shí)學(xué)習(xí)新的單詞與句型。2.介紹動物園里的一些動物和它們的特點(diǎn),同時(shí)學(xué)習(xí)新的單詞與短語。3.分組設(shè)計(jì)。要求學(xué)生根據(jù)實(shí)際情況設(shè)計(jì)由本校至圖書館的交通工具和路線,并介紹圖書館的布局。評選出價(jià)錢最優(yōu)惠或最省時(shí)的最佳設(shè)計(jì)路線。(這一步驟可以檢驗(yàn)出學(xué)生對自己所在城市的了解程度)4.出示一張交通地圖,要求根據(jù)地圖設(shè)計(jì)出一條從火車站至香格里拉酒店的最佳路線,并用英語陳述。(這一步驟考查學(xué)生使用地圖解決實(shí)際問題的能力)5.作業(yè):假設(shè)你有一個(gè)外國朋友,要從深圳去北京旅游,請你幫他設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)為期七天的旅游路線時(shí)間表。建議:可以聽從旅行社、家長、親戚或朋友的意見,也可以從報(bào)刊、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上獲悉所要的信息。(這一步驟體現(xiàn)了課堂和實(shí)際生活的密切聯(lián)系)
Abstract: This paper aims to formulate a theoretical discussion concerning the relevance of learning strategies as well as help Chinese EFL teachers to acquire a clear understanding of these strategies. It provides the background of language learning strategies and critically presents a variety of definitions and taxonomies of language learning strategies offered by researchers. It also explains the relation of cognitive theory to the use of learning strategies. In the last section, the implications for the EFL classroom are discussed.
There has been an increasing concern about learning strategies and their influence on acquiring a second language in the past three decades. The notion of ‘learning strategies’ was introduced in L2 research in the late 1970s (Dornyei and Skehan, p2003) and the early studies focused on learners characteristics: that is, what strategies a good learner uses make his/her language learning more effective than a poor learner (see McDonough 1999). The studies indicated that language processing strategies actually influenced second language acquisition; a number of factors including motivation, language aptitude and sex of the learner were associated with learner strategic behavior (see Wenden& Rubin, 1987).
Following this, researchers further studied learning strategies from various perspectives including psychology, culture and also their performance in different skills areas like listening, writing, speaking and reading. Researchers have developed a number of methods of doing research on learning strategies in SLA, including oral interviews and written questionnaires, observation, protocol analysis, verbal report, diaries and dialogue journals, recollections studies and computer tracking (McDonough, 1999, p2). Almost every method has its own limitations. For example, questionnaires can tell us people’s attitudes about what they want and what they think they will do or have done rather than what they actually do; protocol analysis is likely to tell us nothing about what writers are not concerned about and cause many interpretation problems as well (McDonough 1995).
2The definition and classification of ‘learning strategies’
The term ‘learning strategies’ has been defined by many researchers. Wenden & Rubin (1987, p7) claim that ‘there is little consensus in the literature concerning either the definition or the identification of language learning strategies.’ Oxford (1990, p8) defines learning strategies as ‘specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed more effective and more transferable to new situations.’ From this definition, we can see that Oxford emphasizes the function of ‘learning strategies’ and describes them as ‘a(chǎn)ctions’. The word ‘a(chǎn)ctions’ basically means ‘process of doing something; using energy or influence, activity’ (Hornby 2002) and normally excludes thoughts or ideas. However, in Oxford’s six main classes of learning strategy (memory, social, affective, metacognitive, cognitive, compensation strategies), most of them are related to“ ‘mental processes’ rather than ‘ behaviors or actions’” (Dornyei and Skehan 2003, p608) ”. This definition, therefore, is likely to be inaccurate to identify ‘learning strategies’. Although researchers identify this term ‘learning strategies’ from different perspectives, all the definitions seem to highlight important connections between learning strategies and language acquisition and regard ‘learning strategies’ as a mental or behavioral process to enhance language learning.
A number of scholars have classified language learning strategies in different ways and L2 field present considerable tolerance of the classification for them. For example, O’ Malley and Chamot (1990) divide language learning strategies into three classes: cognitive, metacognitive and social/affective strategies. In this taxonomy, cognitive strategies are related to the manipulation and input of information such as organization. Metacognitve strategies involve the skills of planning, monitoring, or evaluating classroom activities. Social/affective strategies involve interaction or emotional (affective) control in language learning. Thus asking questions from teachers, co-operating on group work, discussing tasks with classmates are all examples of affective strategies.
3Cognitive theory and learning strategies in SLA
In order to grasp the idea of language learning strategies, it is important to acquire a better understanding of cognitive theory. According to Macaro (2001, p22), cognition is ‘the way the brain holds information for short periods of time, stores information, selects and retrieves information and processes information.’ It involves two different areas of the brain, which are the working memory and the long-term memory. Language is stored in the working memory for a short time while being stored for ‘indefinite periods of time’ in the long-term memory. People acquire language from the outside in the form of ‘sounds’ or ‘squiggles’. Once language comes into the brain, it will exist as ‘meaning’ or ‘ideas’. Working memory selects, encodes, decodes and retrieves language from the long-term memory. With the improvement of proficiency with the linguistics items, the working memory can retrieve language from the long-term ‘a(chǎn)utomatically’. In other words, linguistics items will be retrieved automatically from the long-term memory instead of learners using concrete knowledge they have learned to retrieve them. According to Macaro(2001), learning strategies use the same way in which linguistic items operate in the brain. They can be ‘controlled’ at the beginning and then appear to be ‘a(chǎn)utomatic’. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are regarded as the direct contribution to the cognitive theory. Social/effective strategies, however, are not associated to the cognitive theory because they involve a variety of behaviors such as ‘cooperation’, ‘a(chǎn)sking questions’ and ‘self-talk’, which do not belong to cognition processes. Nevertheless, in order to further study language strategies, we can not leave them out of the classification due to their wide application in language acquisition (Dornyei and Skehan, 2003).
4Implications
An important implication is that at which language proficiency level learners can be provided with the learning strategy instructions by EFL teachers in China. O’ Malley and Chamot (1990) suggest that learning strategy instruction should start until learners have sufficient proficiency to understand it or use native language to deliver it. However, my suggestion is that, no matter what proficiency level learners have, training them to develop learning strategies by using both native and second languages in the beginning. From my own teaching experience, giving strategy instructions in the native language is more effective than in the target language in writing, listening and reading class while the use of the target language is more helpful than the native language in speaking class. That might be why many Chinese students prefer Chinese English teachers in the writing, listening, and reading class and foreign teachers are popular in the speaking class (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996).
Different from language knowledge, learning strategy is related to the approaches to learn, which are important and difficult to some extent. In writing, listening, and reading class, students can obtain the clear explanations or instructions from Chinese teachers because they often use native language to give instructions. When instructions are offered by teachers in second language, it may be common for some students not to understand them fully. Particularly Chinese learners, who are reluctant to ask questions in the class even when they do not have a clear understanding (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996), may have difficulties in fully understanding teachers’ learning strategy instructions. Nevertheless, speaking is likely to be more related to communication and imitation than other areas so foreign teachers can present better examples of pronunciations and communications than Chinese teachers. That might be the reason why Chinese learners prefer native English teachers in their speaking class.
Therefore, it is suggested that Chinese English teachers give learning strategy instructions in both Chinese and English language. They may firstly use English to give instructions and then explain them in Chinese. In this case, students not only are exposed to the target language instructions but also acquire a full understanding about how they should do.
5Conclusion
Research supports the effectiveness of using L2 learning strategies and has shown that successful language learners often use strategies to acquire a second language. Therefore, it has become necessary for teachers to help students to understand good language learning strategies and train them to develop these strategies. Nevertheless, training students to apply strategies to English language learning is likely to be a rather complex procedure, which needs teachers effectively transmitting knowledge from theories into applications according to specific situations. In other words, it is necessary for Chinese EFL teachers and educators to learn how to apply learning strategies theory into their practical teaching. Furthermore, although considerable studies have been done on how to improve L2 students' learning strategies, additional research in this area is still certainly called for due to the complexities of their applications.
References:
[1]Cortazzi, M. & Jin, L. (1996) Cultures of learning: language classrooms in China. In Coleman, H.(Ed). Society and the language classroom.( pp. 169―206). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[2]Dornyei, Z. and Skehan, P. (2003). Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. In Donghty and Long (p606-612). The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford : Blackwell Publishers.
[3]Hornby, A (2002) (4th ed) Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[4]Macaro, E.(2001). Theories Learning Strategies in Foreign and Second Language Classrooms. London: Continuum.
[5]McDonough, S. H. (1999), Learner Strategies, Language Teaching, 32/1:1-18.
[6]McDonough, S. H. (1995), Strategy and skill in learning a foreign language. London: Edward Arnold.
[7]O’Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
在語言構(gòu)成的三大要素――詞匯、語音和語法中,詞匯維系著語言的語音、語法、語篇,是構(gòu)成語言的必要條件。沒有語言,人們難以表達(dá);而少了詞匯,人們則無法表達(dá)(D. A. Wilkins,1982)。詞匯是語言的形體,語言的準(zhǔn)確性、細(xì)膩性和豐富性都是由語言的詞匯決定的。沒有足夠的詞匯,沒有對所學(xué)詞匯的全面理解學(xué)生不能有效地進(jìn)行聽、說、讀、寫,用英語進(jìn)行交際就難以展開。因此詞匯量的多少影響了外語語言水平的高低,詞匯在語言學(xué)習(xí)中的地位是十分重要的,而這也決定了大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中詞匯教學(xué)占有舉足輕重的地位。
若A句真實(shí),則 B句成立;若A句不真實(shí)(John is not married.) ,B句仍然成立。可見,B句是A句的預(yù)設(shè)。
20世紀(jì)60年代,預(yù)設(shè)開始進(jìn)入語言學(xué)領(lǐng)域,成為語義學(xué)和語用學(xué)的重要范疇之一。從語義學(xué)的角度研究的預(yù)設(shè)叫做語義預(yù)設(shè)(semantic presupposition)。語義預(yù)設(shè)是從命題或語句是否具有真假值的角度來定語和考察預(yù)設(shè)的,主要研究句子本身固有的意義,不考慮說話人或者作者以及聽眾對語言的背景知識的理解。但是預(yù)設(shè)對語境因素是相當(dāng)敏感的,所以僅僅從語義學(xué)的角度來研究預(yù)設(shè)帶有明顯的局限性。由此,預(yù)設(shè)逐漸被納入語用學(xué)研究視野。從語用學(xué)角度研究的預(yù)設(shè)叫做語用預(yù)設(shè)(pragmatic presupposition)。語用預(yù)設(shè)在語義預(yù)設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上增加了使用語言的人和環(huán)境,將預(yù)設(shè)看成是交際雙方預(yù)先設(shè)定的限制信息。語境中說話的時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)、場合以及說話者的知識狀態(tài)等因素都和預(yù)設(shè)相關(guān)。列文森(Levinson)從語用的角度總結(jié)了語用預(yù)設(shè)的兩個(gè)重要特點(diǎn):合適性(appropriateness)與共識性(mutual knowledge)。前者是指話語的預(yù)設(shè)要與一定的語境相配合相一致,它是達(dá)到交際的先決條件;后者是指預(yù)設(shè)是交際雙方都可以理解、都可以接受的那些背景知識,它是完成交際的必要條件。這兩個(gè)條件也決定了語用預(yù)設(shè)的可撤銷性特點(diǎn) 。一旦話語的語境產(chǎn)生某些改變,則原來成立的預(yù)設(shè)就不成立了。例如,“His wife is so beautiful, but what a pity that he divorced short before.”在這個(gè)命題中,“His wife is so beautiful”預(yù)設(shè)了“He got married”。但由于后面的所加之句“but what a pity that he divorced short before”改變了語境,使得原先的預(yù)設(shè)被撤銷了。
C預(yù)設(shè)了:we didn’t expect to meet our neighbor in the cinema.
例③,F(xiàn)or them the land has always just been there, something that had to be dealt with and, if possible , exploited, the mind-set being one of land as commodity rather than land as, well, priceless art on the scale of the “Mona Lisa.”
A篇:Chen Long, who is a first-year student of my college. He gets up very early every morning .He brings a small recorder and goes to the woods to practice his English listening ability.
B篇:Every early morning Chen Long, a first-year student of my college, goes to the woods to practice his English listening ability with a small recorder.
相較于A篇,許多信息在B篇中都是通過預(yù)設(shè)傳達(dá)的:B篇的“Every early morning”這一時(shí)間狀語預(yù)設(shè)了A篇中“He gets up very early every morning .”這一句話的語意;B篇的伴隨狀語“with a small recorder”預(yù)設(shè)了A篇中的“He brings a small recorder”這一語意。此外,B篇只通過一句話就傳達(dá)了A篇三句話的語意,大部分信息都是通過預(yù)設(shè)使得受話者得到信息的。很顯然,B篇更加言簡意賅,某局更加嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)。